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reference instance

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1 reference instance

Программирование: ссылочный экземпляр (функционального блока или субприложения IEC 61499)

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > reference instance
2 deleting the reference instance

Программирование: удаление ссылочного экземпляра

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > deleting the reference instance
3 instance

['ɪn(t)stən(t)s] 1. сущ.
1) пример, случай

isolated / rare instance — отдельный пример

in rare instances — в редких случаях

in a few isolated instances — в некоторых отдельных случаях

to cite / give an instance — приводить пример

- for instance

Syn:

sample, example

2) требование, настояние; запрос, просьба

I am writing to you at the instance of my friend. — Я пишу вам по просьбе моего друга.

Syn:

insistence

3)

а) этап, ступень

In this instance I prefer to remain anonymous. — На этом этапе я предпочитаю не сообщать своего имени.

- in the first instance

б) юр. инстанция

court of first instance — суд первой инстанции
2. гл.
1) приводить пример; ссылаться

We will instance in a single writer, Walton. — Сошлёмся лишь на одного автора - Уолтона.

Syn:

cite, reference 2.

2) служить примером

•

Syn:

exemplify

Англо-русский современный словарь > instance
4 reference mode

"A word, number, or abbreviation used to identify a unique instance of an entity object type."

وضع مرجع

English-Arabic terms dictionary > reference mode
5 quote

kwəut
verb

1) (to repeat the exact words of a person as they were said or written: to quote Shakespeare / Shakespeare's words / from Shakespeare, `Is this a dagger which I see before me?') citar

2) (to name (a price).) cotizar; estimar

3) (to mention or state in support of an argument: to quote an example.) citar

•

- quotation
- quotation marks

quote vb citar

El gerundio de quote se escribe quoting

quote

tr[kwəʊt]

noun

1 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL cita

2 (price - gen) presupuesto; (- for shares) cotización nombre femenino

transitive verb

1 citar, entrecomillar

2 (price) dar, ofrecer

3 SMALLFINANCE/SMALL cotizar

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to ask for a quote pedir un presupuesto

to give somebody a quote dar un presupuesto a alguien

to quote somebody a price ofrecer un precio a alguien

quote ['kwo:t] vt, quoted ; quoting

1) cite: citar

2) value: cotizar (en finanzas)

quote n

1) quotation

2) quotes npl quotation marks

quote

n.

• comillas s.f.pl.

• cotización s.f.

v.

• citar v.

• cotizar v.

I
1. kwəʊt
transitive verb

1)

a) \<\<writer/passage\>\> citar; \<\<reference number\>\> indicar*

you've been quoted as saying that... — se ha afirmado que usted ha dicho que...

but don't quote me on that — pero no estoy absolutamente seguro, pero no lo repitas

b) \<\<example\>\> dar*; \<\<instance\>\> citar

2)

a) ( Busn) \<\<price\>\> dar*, ofrecer*

b) ( Fin) cotizar*

2.

vi (repeat, recite)

he was quoting from the Bible — citaba de la Biblia

she can quote from a wide range of writers — se sabe (de memoria) citas de un gran número de escritores de todo tipo

she said, and I quote... — dijo, y lo repito textualmente..., sus palabras textuales fueron...

II

noun (colloq)

1) ( passage) cita f

2) ( estimate) presupuesto m

to give somebody a quote — darle* or hacerle* un presupuesto a alguien

3) quotes pl ( quotation marks) comillas fpl

in o between quotes — entre comillas

III

interjection

he said, quote, `I have a gun', unquote — dijo textualmente or sus palabras textuales fueron: `tengo una pistola'

[kwǝʊt]
1. VT

1) (=cite) [+ writer, line, passage, source] citar

to quote my aunt... — para citar a mi tía..., como decía mi tía...

you can quote me — puedes decir que te lo he dicho yo

don't quote me on that — no te lo puedo decir a ciencia cierta

he is quoted as saying that... — se le atribuye haber dicho que...

2) (=mention) [+ example] dar, citar; [+ reference number] indicar

to quote sth/sb as an example (of sth) — poner algo/a algn como ejemplo (de algo)

3) (Comm) (=estimate)

he quoted/I was quoted a good price — me dio un presupuesto or precio muy razonable

4) (Econ) [+ shares, company, currency] cotizar (at a)

last night, Hunt shares were quoted at 346 pence — anoche las acciones Hunt cotizaron a 346 peniques

it is not quoted on the Stock Exchange — no se cotiza en la Bolsa

quoted company — empresa f que cotiza en Bolsa

2. VI

1) (=recite, repeat) citar

to quote from the Bible — citar de la Biblia

he said, and I quote,... — dijo, y cito sus propias palabras,...

2) (Comm)

to quote for sth — hacer un presupuesto de algo, presupuestar algo

I got several firms to quote for the building work — pedí a varias empresas que me hicieran un presupuesto de or me presupuestaran la obra

3. N
*
1) (=line, passage) cita f

2) (Comm) (=estimate) presupuesto m

3) (St Ex) cotización f

4) quotes (=inverted commas) comillas fpl

in quotes — entre comillas

4.

EXCL

she said, quote, "he was as drunk as a lord", unquote — sus palabras textuales fueron: -estaba como una cuba

she died in a, quote, "accident", unquote — murió en un accidente, entre comillas or por así decirlo

"quote" — (in dictation) "comienza la cita"

* * *

I
1. [kwəʊt]
transitive verb

1)

a) \<\<writer/passage\>\> citar; \<\<reference number\>\> indicar*

you've been quoted as saying that... — se ha afirmado que usted ha dicho que...

but don't quote me on that — pero no estoy absolutamente seguro, pero no lo repitas

b) \<\<example\>\> dar*; \<\<instance\>\> citar

2)

a) ( Busn) \<\<price\>\> dar*, ofrecer*

b) ( Fin) cotizar*

2.

vi (repeat, recite)

he was quoting from the Bible — citaba de la Biblia

she can quote from a wide range of writers — se sabe (de memoria) citas de un gran número de escritores de todo tipo

she said, and I quote... — dijo, y lo repito textualmente..., sus palabras textuales fueron...

II

noun (colloq)

1) ( passage) cita f

2) ( estimate) presupuesto m

to give somebody a quote — darle* or hacerle* un presupuesto a alguien

3) quotes pl ( quotation marks) comillas fpl

in o between quotes — entre comillas

III

interjection

he said, quote, `I have a gun', unquote — dijo textualmente or sus palabras textuales fueron: `tengo una pistola'

English-spanish dictionary > quote
6 mention

1. n упоминание; ссылка

he made mention of the fact — он упомянул об этом

mention may be made of … — можно упомянуть …; можно сослаться на …

it is worthy of special mention — об этом стоит упомянуть особо

making mention — упоминание

making mention of — упоминающий; упоминание

at the very mention of — при самом упоминании о

honorary mention — упоминание о заслугах ; благодарность

2. v упоминать, ссылаться на

he mentioned no names — он никого не назвал, он не упомянул ни одной фамилии

I could mention a man who … — я мог бы назвать человека, который …

I only just mentioned it to him — я только упомянул об этом

I had forgotten to mention that … — я забыл упомянуть, что …

you never mentioned it — вы об этом не упомянули, вы об этом ничего не сказали

we never mention her — мы о ней никогда не говорим

to mention as an instance — привести в качестве примера

there is not space to mention all the books — объём не позволяет назвать все книги

to be honourably mentioned — быть удостоенным поощрения

to be mentioned in dispatches — быть удостоенным упоминания в приказе

he was mentioned in dispatches — его имя упоминалось в списке отличившихся

we need hardly mention that … — вряд ли нужно упоминать о том, что …, само собой разумеется, что …

made mention of — упомянул; упомянутый; упоминаться

make mention of — упоминать о

Синонимический ряд:

1. reference (noun) allusion; indication; naming; notice; reference; remark; specifying

2. allude to (verb) allude to; refer to; report

3. name (verb) cite; instance; name; specify

4. refer (verb) advert; allude; bring up; point out; refer; touch on

5. remark (verb) communicate; declare; disclose; divulge; impart; remark; state; tell

Антонимический ряд:

forget; forgetfulness; hide; ignore; omission; overlook; silence; suppress

English-Russian base dictionary > mention
7 inconvenience

1. noun
1) no pl. (discomfort, disadvantage) Unannehmlichkeiten (to für)

go to a great deal of inconvenience — große Unannehmlichkeiten auf sich (Akk.) nehmen

2) (instance)

if it's no inconvenience — wenn es keine Umstände macht
2. transitive verb
Unannehmlichkeiten bereiten (+ Dat.); (disturb) stören

* * *

noun ((something which causes) trouble or difficulty: He apologized for the inconvenience caused by his late arrival.) die Unannehmlichkeit

* * *

in·con·ven·ience

[ˌɪnkənˈvi:niən(t)s]

I. n

1. no pl (trouble) Unannehmlichkeit[en] f[pl]

we apologize for any \inconvenience caused by the late arrival of the train für eventuelle Unannehmlichkeiten durch die Zugverspätung bitten wir um Entschuldigung

to go to a great deal of \inconvenience for sb für jdn viel auf sich akk nehmen

he went to a great deal of \inconvenience to help er hat keine Mühen gescheut zu helfen

to cause sb \inconvenience jdm Unannehmlichkeiten bereiten

2. (troublesome thing) Unannehmlichkeit f, lästige Sache

II. vt

▪ to \inconvenience sb jdm Unannehmlichkeiten bereiten

would it \inconvenience you to pick something up for me? würde es dir etwas ausmachen, für mich etwas abzuholen?

▪ to \inconvenience oneself sich akk [um andere] bemühen

don't \inconvenience yourselves for us — we'll be fine machen Sie sich keine Umstände — wir kommen zurecht

* * *
["Inkən'viːnɪəns]
1. n

1) (= inconvenient thing) Unannehmlichkeit f

it's one of the inconveniences of getting old — es ist einer der Nachteile, wenn man älter wird

it was something of an inconvenience not having a car — es war eine ziemlich lästige or leidige Angelegenheit, kein Auto zu haben

2) no pl (= trouble, awkwardness) Unannehmlichkeit(en) f(pl) (to sb für jdn)

the inconvenience of a delayed flight — die Unannehmlichkeiten, die durch einen verspäteten Flug verursacht werden

she complained about the inconvenience of having no shops nearby — sie beklagte sich darüber, wie unbequem or beschwerlich es sei, keine Geschäfte in der Nähe zu haben

I don't want to cause you any inconvenience — ich möchte Ihnen keine Umstände bereiten or machen

to put sb to great inconvenience —

he went to a great deal of inconvenience to help — er machte sich viele Unannehmlichkeiten, um zu helfen

at considerable personal inconvenience — trotz beträchtlicher persönlicher Unannehmlichkeiten

because of the inconvenience of the time/date — weil die Uhrzeit/der Termin ungelegen war

2. vt
Unannehmlichkeiten or Umstände bereiten (+dat); (with reference to time) ungelegen kommen (+dat)
don't inconvenience yourself — machen Sie keine Umstände

* * *

inconvenience [ˌınkənˈviːnjəns; -nıəns]

A s

1. Unbequemlichkeit f

2. a) Ungelegenheit f, Lästigkeit f

b) Unannehmlichkeit f, Schwierigkeit f:

put sb to inconvenience → B 2

B v/t

1. jemanden belästigen, stören, jemandem lästig sein oder zur Last fallen

2. jemandem Unannehmlichkeiten oder Ungelegenheiten bereiten, jemandem Umstände machen

* * *
1. noun
1) no pl. (discomfort, disadvantage) Unannehmlichkeiten (to für)

go to a great deal of inconvenience — große Unannehmlichkeiten auf sich (Akk.) nehmen

2) (instance)

if it's no inconvenience — wenn es keine Umstände macht
2. transitive verb
Unannehmlichkeiten bereiten (+ Dat.); (disturb) stören

* * *

n.

Belästigung f.

Unbequemlichkeit f.

English-german dictionary > inconvenience
8 particular

1. adjective
1) (special) besonder...

which particular place do you have in mind? — an welchen Ort denkst du speziell?

here in particular — besonders hier

nothing/anything [in] particular — nichts/irgendetwas Besonderes

in his particular case — in seinem [besonderen] Fall

2) (fussy, fastidious) genau; eigen (landsch.)

I am not particular — es ist mir gleich

be particular about something — es mit etwas genau nehmen
2. noun
1) in pl. (details) Einzelheiten; Details; (of person) Personalien Pl.; (of incident) nähere Umstände

2) (detail) Einzelheit, die; Detail, das

* * *
[pə'tikjulə]
adjective

1) (of a single definite person, thing etc thought of separately from all others: this particular man/problem.) speziell

2) (more than ordinary: Please take particular care of this letter.) besondere, -s

3) (difficult to please: He is very particular about his food.) wählerisch

•

- academic.ru/53749/particularly">particularly
- particulars
- in particular
* * *

par·ticu·lar

[pɑ:ˈtɪkjələʳ, AM pɚˈtɪkjəlɚ]

I. adj

1. attr (individual) bestimmt

a \particular instance ein bestimmter Moment

2. attr (special) besondere(r, s), speziell

to be of \particular concern to sb jdn besonders interessieren

no \particular reason kein bestimmter Grund

3. pred (fussy) eigen; (demanding) anspruchsvoll ( about hinsichtlich + gen)

to be \particular about one's appearance sehr auf sein Äußeres achten

II. n ( form)

1. (detail) Einzelheit f, Detail nt

in every \particular bis ins Detail

2. (information)

▪ \particulars pl Einzelheiten pl, Details pl

to take down sb's \particular jds Personalien aufnehmen

3. no pl (example)

the \particular die Details pl, das Besondere

4.

▶ in \particular insbesondere

▶ nothing in \particular nichts Besonderes

* * *
[pə'tɪkjʊlə(r)]
1. adj

1)

(= as against others) this particular house is very nice — dies( eine) Haus ist sehr hübsch

it varies according to the particular case — das ist von Fall zu Fall verschieden

in this particular instance —

in certain particular cases — in einigen besonderen Fällen

there's a particular town in France where... — in Frankreich gibt es eine Stadt, wo...

is there any one particular city you prefer? — bevorzugen Sie eine bestimmte Stadt?

2) (= special) besondere(r, s); problem besondere(r, s), bestimmt

in particular — besonders, vor allem, insbesondere

the wine in particular was excellent — vor allem der Wein war hervorragend

nothing in particular — nichts Besonderes or Bestimmtes

is there anything in particular you'd like? — haben Sie einen besonderen Wunsch?

did you want to speak to anyone in particular? — wollten Sie mit jemand( em) Bestimmtem sprechen?

I'm not waiting for anyone in particular — ich warte auf niemand Bestimmten

he's a particular friend of mine — er ist ein guter Freund von mir

for no particular reason —

no particular reason for sth/for doing sth — kein besonderer Grund für etw/dafür, etw zu tun

at a particular time — zu einer bestimmten Zeit

at that particular time — zu (genau) diesem Zeitpunkt

in a particular way — auf bestimmte Art und Weise

to be of particular interest — von besonderem Interesse sein

to be of particular concern to sb —

with particular reference to... — mit besonderem Hinweis auf... (acc)

to take particular care to... — besonders darauf achten, dass...

3) (= fussy, fastidious) eigen; (= choosy) wählerisch

he is very particular about cleanliness/his children's education — er nimmt es mit der Sauberkeit/der Erziehung seiner Kinder sehr genau

he's particular about his car — er ist sehr eigen or pingelig (inf) mit seinem Auto

I'm particular about my friends — ich suche mir meine Freunde genau aus

you can't be too particular —

I'm not too particular (about it) — es kommt mir nicht so darauf an, mir ist es gleich

2. n

1) Besondere(s) nt

the particular and the general — das Besondere und das Allgemeine

2) pl Einzelheiten pl; (about person) Personalien pl

in this particular — in diesem Punkt

correct in every particular — in jedem Punkt richtig

for further particulars apply to the personnel manager — weitere Auskünfte erteilt der Personalchef

to go into particulars — ins Detail or in Einzelheiten gehen

to give particulars — Angaben machen

please give full particulars — bitte genaue Angaben machen

* * *

particular [pə(r)ˈtıkjʊlə(r)]

A adj (adv → particularly)

1. besonder(er, e, es), einzeln, speziell, Sonder…:

it is of no particular importance es ist nicht besonders wichtig;

for no particular reason aus keinem besonderen Grund;

this particular case dieser spezielle Fall

2. individuell, ausgeprägt, ureigen

3. ins Einzelne gehend, umständlich, ausführlich

4. peinlich genau, eigen:

be particular in ( oder about) es sehr genau nehmen mit, Wert legen auf (akk)

5. heikel, wählerisch ( beide:

in, about, as to in dat):

not too particular iron nicht gerade wählerisch (in seinen Methoden etc)

6. eigentümlich, seltsam, sonderbar, merkwürdig

7. PHIL begrenzt

8. JUR

a) dem Besitzer nur beschränkt gehörig

b) nur beschränkten Besitz genießend (Pächter etc)

B s

1. a) Einzelheit f, einzelner Punkt, besonderer Umstand

b) pl nähere Umstände pl oder Angaben pl, (das) Nähere:

in particular insbesondere;

enter ( oder go) into particulars sich auf Einzelheiten einlassen, ins Einzelne gehen;

for further particulars apply to … nähere Auskünfte erteilt …

2. pl Personalien pl, Angaben pl (zur Person)

3. umg Spezialität f:

a London particular eine Londoner Spezialität, etwas für London Typisches

part. abk

1. LING participle Part.

2. particular bes

* * *
1. adjective
1) (special) besonder...

which particular place do you have in mind? — an welchen Ort denkst du speziell?

here in particular — besonders hier

nothing/anything [in] particular — nichts/irgendetwas Besonderes

in his particular case — in seinem [besonderen] Fall

2) (fussy, fastidious) genau; eigen (landsch.)

I am not particular — es ist mir gleich

be particular about something — es mit etwas genau nehmen
2. noun
1) in pl. (details) Einzelheiten; Details; (of person) Personalien Pl.; (of incident) nähere Umstände

2) (detail) Einzelheit, die; Detail, das

* * *

adj.

besonderer adj.

besonders adj.

einzeln adj.

jeweilig adj. n.

Einzelheit f.

besonderes m.

English-german dictionary > particular
9 variable

1) переменная, переменная величина

2) переменный; регулируемый; изменяющийся; поддающийся изменению; неустойчивый

•

- acceleration-deceleration variables
- actuating variable
- adaptive variable
- analog variable
- balancing variable
- canonical variables
- command variable
- computer variable
- continuous variable
- control variable
- controlled variable
- controlling variable
- converted variable
- correcting variable
- decision variable
- discontinuous variable
- discrete change variable
- disturbance variable
- disturbing variable
- final controlled variable
- gap variable
- grinder-temperature variable
- Hamiltonian variables
- independent variable
- infinitely variable
- input variable
- instance variables
- laser processing variables
- machine variable
- manipulated variable
- manipulative variable
- output variable
- performance variables
- port variable
- process variable
- random variable
- reference variable
- reference-input variable
- setup variable
- state variable
- status variable
- steplessly variable
- ultimately controlled variable
- uncontrolled variable
- Z-transform variable

English-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > variable
10 in

in accordance with 1. в соответствии с

in accordance with good practice в соответствии с принятой / установившейся практикой 2. руководствуясь чем-л.

in addition to that вместе с тем

in advance 1. заранее; заблаговременно

Supplier shall notify the Contractor sufficiently in advance of any fabricating operations Обо всех производственных операциях Поставщик заблаговременно извещает Подрядчика 2. авансом (т.е. "вперед", в отличие от in arrears- см.)

in all ways 1. во всех отношениях 2. с любой точки зрения

in ample time заблаговременно ( с оттенком задолго до, с большим запасом [ по времени])

in analysis based on limit load при расчете по предельным нагрузкам

in anticipation 1. исподволь 2. заблаговременно

in arrears по факту (т.е. по истечении какого-то времени, «потом», в отличие от in advance - см)

in attendance Those in attendance included Присутствовали:...

in basic terms вообще говоря; в общем и целом; как правило

in block letters печатными буквами

in the blueprint stage в стадии проектирования (перен. в стадии планирования, "на бумаге"; в отличие от in the hardware stage - см.)

in bulk quantities в товарных количествах

in case a (

the)

seal is disturbed при нарушении пломбы

in case of eye contact при попадании в глаза (опасного / вредного вещества /материала)

in case of ingestion при попадании внутрь (опасного / вредного вещества /материала)

in case of inhalation при вдыхании (опасного / вредного вещества / материала)

in case of respiratory standstill при остановке дыхания

in case of skin contact при попадании на кожу (опасного /вредного вещества /материала)

in case of swallowing при проглатывании (опасного /вредного вещества /материала)

in the clear: be sure all personnel are in the clear убедиться в том, что весь персонал находится в безопасности (т.е. вне опасности, на безопасном расстоянии и т.д.)

in codex form в форме книги

in compliance with по (напр., нормам, ТУ и т.д.);

in compliance with your request по Вашей просьбе

in conclusion, В заключение...

in a condensed form в сжатой форме

in conflict with: In conflict with this is... ( в начале предлож.) В то же время...; Вместе с тем...

in conformance to по (напр., нормам, ТУ и т.д.)

in conjunction with 1. параллельно с

In conjunction with an increase in rate, the tube position corresponding to... is located farther upstream Параллельно с увеличением скорости [ осадкообразования] сечение на трубке, соответствующее..., смещается все выше по потоку 2. одновременно с 3. в сочетании с

in connection with 1. в свете... 2. в контексте чего-л. 3. in connection with Fig. 13... Если обратиться к рис. 13...

in consideration of 1. принимая во внимание 2. учитывая

in a conspicuous location на видном месте

in a conspicuous place на видном месте

in a conspicuous position на видном месте

in consultation with по согласованию с; по договоренности с

in contemplation of в преддверии чего-л.;

in contemplation of our upcoming meeting в преддверии нашей предстоящей встречи

in the context of 1. в связи с; в свете; в плане 2. применительно к 3. если иметь в виду; с учетом 4. на примере 5. с точки зрения 6. в случае 7. в отношении 8. в области 9. в рамках

in continuation of в развитие чего-л.

in contradiction with противоречащий чему-л.

if this is not in contradiction with если это не противоречит...

in contrast (npomueum.) 1. же

In contrast, the algorithm presented here... Предлагаемый же здесь метод... 2. что же касается...

These studies have concentrated in the upper water layers... In contrast, rather little detailed work seems to have been undertaken in the very deepest parts of the[ Caspian] Sea Эти исследования проводились в основном в верхних слоях воды... Что же касается самых глубоких участков [ Каспийского] моря, то там, похоже, практически не проводилось сколько-нибудь детальных исследовательских работ

in contrast to в отличие от; в то время как; что же касается

in control не выходящий за установленные предельные значения (напр., о размерах, механических свойствах, технологических параметрах и т.д.)

in a controlled manner организованно

the practice of burning off waste gas in a controlled manner установившаяся / принятая практика организованного сжигания сбросного газа [ в факеле]

in a criss-cross pattern по перекрестной схеме ( затяжка болтов - для обеспечения равномерной затяжки)

in a customary manner обычным способом; по обычной схеме; тривиально

A shall be determined in a customary manner А определяется обычным путем / по обычной схеме / тривиально

in a design situation при проектировании

in diction словами; на обычном языке; открытым текстом (т.е. не кодом)

in a direction parallel to по ходу (напр., трубопровода)

in document format отдельным изданием

in domestic experience в отечественной практике

in due time в установленные сроки; своевременно

in effect по существу

in either direction в любом направлении

in either direction parallel to the piping run в любом направлении по ходу трубопровода

in excess больше ( чем нужно);

well in excess заведомо больше; с избытком

in excess of 1. не укладывающийся в 2. сверх чего-л.

weld material in excess of the specified weld size избыток материала сварного шва сверх установленного размера

in an expedient manner оперативно

in fact более того,...

in force действующий (напр., законодательство, договор и т.д.)

in the field на монтаже ( а не па заводе или на производстве)

in the first place вообще

in foreseeable future в обозримом будущем

in formative stage в стадии становления

in free format в произвольном виде

in full detail исчерпывающе; исчерпывающим образом; исчерпывающе подробно; с исчерпывающей полнотой

in full standing полноправный

in full view в пределах прямой видимости (зд. «прямо» означает не впереди, перед, а незаслоненный, незагороженный)

in furtherance of в продолжение чего-л.;

in furtherance of our talks в продолжение нашего разговора

in furtherance to в развитие чего-л.;

in furtherance to your letter dated01.15.2004 в развитие Вашего письма от 15.01.2004 г.

in ( the) future 1. со временем; впоследствии 2. в перспективе

in general: A does not in general correspond to В А не всегда соответствует В

in general terms вообще говоря

in the generic sense собирательно

in good order в полной исправности; в исправном рабочем состоянии;

in good working order в исправном рабочем состоянии

in good standing полноправный

in a gradual manner плавно;

pre-heat shall be applied in a gradual and uniform manner подогрев производится плавно и равномерно

in greater detail намного / гораздо полнее

in hand (см. тж. on hand) наличный; имеющийся

quantity in hand наличные запасы;

work in hand намеченная к выполнению работа; запланированная работа; заданная работа

in the hardware stage в стадии конструктивной сборки (в отличие от in the blueprint stage - см.)

in hidden form (матем.) в неявном виде; в неявной форме

in the initial stages на первых порах

in isolation автономно

in the judgment of по мнению

in line with 1. в увязке с

in line with overall project requirements в увязке с потребностями проекта в целом 2. (перен.) в русле чего-л. 3. вдоль чего-л. 4. соосно с чем-л. 5. параллельно чему-л.

in the long run в перспективе

in a... manner: in a gradual and uniform manner плавно и равномерно

in a masterful way мастерски

The problem has been dealt with in a masterful way Поставленная задача решена мастерски

in the mean в обычном смысле

in the melting-pot: be in the melting-pot находиться в стадии решения / принятия решения

in a modification в другом исполнении

in multiples of в количестве

in the near term в краткосрочной перспективе

in need of нуждающийся в чем-л.;

those found to be in need of assistance те, кто определенно нуждаются в помощи

in no case ни при каких обстоятельствах

in a non-discriminative manner непредвзято

in no time в сжатые сроки

in no way никоим образом не

The signing of this document by a Company agent shall in no way relieve the Manufacturer of any responsibility for Визирование / Факт подписания настоящего документа представителем Компании никоим образом не освобождает Поставщика от ответственности за;

Inspection by the Contractor in no way relieves the Supplier of his responsibility to meet the requirements of... Проведение / Факт проведения контроля Подрядчиком никоим образом не освобождает Поставщика от ответственности за выполнение требований...

in operation задействованный;

which may fluctuate due to the number of fire water hydrants in operation который может колебаться в зависимости от числа задействованных пожарных гидрантов

in an orderly manner организованно; в организованном порядке

in outline в общих чертах

in one's own element в своей сфере

in one's own milieu в своей сфере

in particular в первую очередь; прежде всего

in passing заметим в скобках; заметим попутно; между прочим

in person лично

in place:

1) be in place 1. иметь наготове; представлять (документы, согласования и т.д.) 2. (описат.) используемый (реально, фактически)

2) have in place располагать (чем-л.)

3) put in place 1. внедрять; вводить в действие; внедрять в практику 2. реализовывать 3. выполнять ( фактически); осуществлять 4. задействовать; (перен..) запускать (напр., процесс перехода на новый материал)

in point:

1) case in point характерный пример; образчик; эпизод

2) tool in point подходящее / нужное / соответствующее средство

in the present circumstances 1. в данном случае 2. в этих условиях

in ( the) press готовится к печати

in print;

Books in print (КВП) "Книги, имеющиеся в продаже" (а не в печати!)

in progress быть ( пока) незавершенным

Since work is still in progress to define А Поскольку работа по определению А еще не завершена,...

in pursuance of: 1. следуя (напр., нашему плану) 2. in pursuance of your letter dated01.15.2004 в связи с Вашим письмом от 15.01.2004 г.; в контексте Вашего письма от 15.01.2004 г. 3. in pursuance of your orders во исполнение Ваших указаний

in pursuance to в ответ на;

in pursuance to your letter в ответ на Ваше письмо

in question рассматриваемый

in receipt of: We are in receipt of your letter dated Мы получили Ваше письмо от...

in recent years в последние годы

in recognition of 1. отдавая должное 2. принимая во внимание 3. с учетом

in reference: in reference to your inquiry dated На Ваш запрос от...

in this regard (синон. in this context) в этой связи

in response of в соответствии с;

in response of A comments against В в соответствии с замечаниями А по В

in response to в соответствии с;

in response to crew comments against B1 unit в соответствии с замечаниями экипажа по блоку В1;

in retaliation в отместку за что-л.

in retrospect задним числом

in routine use in: be in routine use in обычно используется в

in running order годный к пуску (напр., блок электростанции)

in a sense в известном смысле

in a short time в недалеком будущем

in situ на своем месте

in so doing ( в начале предлож.) При этом...

in so far as коль скоро

in some instances... and in others в одних случаях..., а в других случаях

in some locations..., in other (

locations) в одних местах..., в других...

in spurts скачкообразный (напр., о росте трещины)

in step with по мере (увеличения, уменьшения, роста, снижения, и т.д.];

in step with the growth in GDP по мере роста / увеличения валового внутреннего продукта

in substitution to взамен чего-л. (напр., выдавать доработанный чертеж: проекта вместо другого, предыдущего)

in summary в общем (и целом)

in terms of (ЛДП) 1. в плане чего-л.; в части чего-л. 2. если говорить о 3. (матем.) относительно

A can be written in terms of stress, displacement... А можно записать относительно напряжений, перемещений... 4. с точки зрения

The processes that... have been evaluated in terms of the reduction of total reactive nitrogen Процессы, которые..., оценивали с точки зрения снижения концентрации общего реакцион-носпособного азота 5. по...

These zones were examined separately in terms of how they influenced the exhaust level of NO^x Параметры каждой из этих зон исследовали раздельно по их влиянию на интенсивность образования

NO^x 6. в вопросах... 7. в пересчете на 8. в соответствии
in this context 1. здесь; в этом / данном случае; в этом смысле 2. в данной ситуации; в такой ситуации 3. в этой связи; в связи с этим 4. при этом условии 5. при такой постановке 6. в рамках; в свете
in this instance А если это так, то; А раз это так, то

in a timely manner оперативно

Bureau of Land Management will make every effort to process applications for rights-of-way in a timely manner Управление земплепользования США примет все меры к оперативному рассмотрению заявлений на получение полосы отчуждения / отвода

in a tough spot: be in a tough spot находиться / оказаться в затруднительном положении

in a uniform manner равномерно

in unique cases в исключительных случаях

in unison параллельно; совместно; в связке

if a load is lifted by two or more trucks working in unison если перевалка груза осуществляется двумя или более самосвалами, работающими в связке

in use 1. принятый (в знач. находящийся в употреблении)

standard operating procedure in use within the US обычная методика / обычный порядок работы, принятая / принятый в США 2. находящийся в обороте 3. at the locations where the equipment is in use в тех местах, где эта техника эксплуатируется / используется / задействуется

in a variety of[ different areas] в самых различных [ областях]

in the vicinity of в зоне чего-л.;

in the vicinity of fire в зоне огня ( пожара)

in view of 1. в связи с; коль скоро; в свете чего-л.; на основании чего-л. in view of the foregoing в связи с вышеизложенным; в свете вышеизложенного; на основании вышеизложенного 2. in view of the fact that в связи с тем, что

in which case и тогда...

in witness whereof в удостоверение чего...

in words прописью ( о цифрах)

in a workmanlike manner квалифицированно; мастерски; "классно"

in writing в письменном виде

in a wrong place 1. в неположенном месте 2. (разг.) не там

English-Russian dictionary of scientific and technical difficulties vocabulary > in
11 refer

refer [rɪ'fɜ:(r)] (pt & pp referred, cont referring)

transitive verb

(a) (submit → matter, proposal etc) soumettre (to à);

∎ the dispute has been referred to arbitration le litige a été soumis à arbitrage ou à l'arbitrage d'un médiateur;

∎ I refer the matter to you for a decision je m'en remets à vous pour prendre une décision sur la question;

∎ the question has been referred to Jane la question a été soumise à Jane;

∎ to refer a case to a higher court renvoyer ou déférer une affaire à une instance supérieure;

∎ the contract has been referred to us le contrat nous a été soumis;

∎ Banking to refer a cheque to drawer refuser d'honorer un chèque;

∎ refer to drawer (on cheque) voir le tireur

(b) (send, direct → person) renvoyer;

∎ my doctor referred me to the hospital/to a specialist mon docteur m'a envoyé à l'hôpital/chez un spécialiste;

∎ the doctor's going to refer me le docteur va m'envoyer chez un spécialiste;

∎ I refer you to Ludlow's book je vous renvoie au livre de Ludlow;

∎ here the author refers us to 'Alice in Wonderland' ici l'auteur nous renvoie à 'Alice au pays des merveilles'

(c) Law

∎ to refer the accused déférer l'accusé

(d) University (student) refuser, recaler; (thesis) renvoyer pour révision

(e) Medicine

∎ the pain may be referred to another part of the body il peut y avoir irradiation de la douleur dans d'autres parties du corps

(f) (attribute) attribuer;

∎ to refer sth to an event attribuer qch à un événement

➲ refer back separable transitive verb

(a) (put off → meeting, decision) ajourner, remettre (à plus tard)

(b) (redirect → case) renvoyer;

∎ the case was referred back to our office l'affaire a été renvoyée à notre service

➲ refer to inseparable transitive verb

(a) (allude to) faire allusion ou référence à, parler de;

∎ no one refers to it now personne n'en parle plus maintenant;

∎ I don't know what you are referring to je ne sais pas à quoi vous faites allusion ou de quoi vous parlez;

∎ we won't refer to it again nous n'en reparlons plus;

∎ he keeps referring to me as Dr Rayburn il ne cesse de m'appeler Dr Rayburn;

∎ the revolutionaries are referred to as Mantras ces révolutionnaires sont connus sous le nom de Mantras;

∎ that comment refers to you cette remarque s'adresse à vous;

∎ they refer to themselves as martyrs ils se qualifient eux-mêmes de martyrs

(b) (relate to) correspondre à, faire référence à; (apply, be connected to) s'appliquer à, s'adresser à;

∎ the numbers refer to footnotes les chiffres renvoient à des notes en bas de page;

∎ these measures only refer to taxpayers ses mesures ne s'appliquent qu'aux contribuables

(c) (consult → notes) consulter; (→ book, page, instructions) se reporter à;

∎ (→ person) I shall have to refer to my boss je dois en référer à ou consulter mon patron

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > refer
12 sample

ˈsɑ:mpl
1. сущ.
1) а) образец, образчик, экземпляр to distribute, hand out ( free) samples ≈ раздавать образцы floor sample ≈ товар, потерявший товарный вид free sample ≈ бесплатный образец, экземпляр б) проба (часто для научного или медицинского исследования) they took samples of my blood ≈ у меня взяли кровь на пробу ∙ Syn: pattern
1., specimen
2) пример, образец ( о нематериальных сущностях) Syn: example, illustration, instance
1.
3) мат.;
стат. выборка We based our analysis on a random sample of more than 200 people. ≈ Наш анализ опирается на исследование случайной выборки, состоящей из более чем 200 человек.
4) модель, шаблон
2. прил. представляющий собой образец, пример sample questions ≈ примерные вопросы (напр., к экзамену)
3. гл.
1) а) брать образцы или пробы;
особ. определять качество на основе анализа отдельного образца Syn: test
2. б) пробовать на вкус, дегустировать( блюда, напитки) Syn: taste
2.
2) испытывать, пробовать a good chance to sample a different way of life ≈ неплохой шанс попробовать изменить образ жизни Syn: try
2.
3) представлять собой образец, образчик;
служить образчиком (чего-л.)
4) снабжать образцами (особ. какой-л. продукции) to sample the dealers with new articles ≈ снабдить торговых представителей образцами новых товаров образец, образчик;
проба - fine * прекрасный образчик - a book of *s альбом образцов - *s of air for analysis пробы воздуха для анализа - to sell by * продавать по образцам - up to *, equal to * соответствующий образцу - below /not up to, not equal to/ * не соответствующи образцу - as per * (коммерческое) согласно образцу - representative * характерный образец - * bottle пробная бутылка - * tea образец чая - * operation order( военное) примерный боевой приказ образец, пример - a * of courage образец смелости - to give a * of one's knowledge продемонстрировать свою образованность шаблон, модель (статистика) выборка, замер, выборочная совокупность - * census выборочная перепись - * unit единица выборки - representative * репрезентативная /представительная/ выборка отбирать образцы или пробы пробовать, испытывать - it was the first time I had *d camp life тогда я впервые испытал лагерную /походную/ жизнь adequate ~ образец, соответствующий требованиям biased ~ стат. необъективная выборка biased ~ стат. пристрастная выборка biased ~ смещенная выборка biased ~ стат. смещенная выборка bivariate ~ двумерная выборка blood ~ образец крови ~ образец, образчик;
book of samples альбом образцов censored ~ цензурированная выборка cluster ~ стат. групповой выбор commercial ~ (not for sale) торговый образец товара не для продажи counter ~ конкурирующий образец free ~ бесплатный образец judgment ~ преднамеренный выбор large ~ большая выборка lot ~ выборка из партии moderate-sized ~ выборка умеренного объема multicensored ~ многократно цензурированная выборка multiphase ~ многофазная выборка multipurpose ~ многоцелевая выборка multistage ~ многоступенчатая выборка nongrouped ~ негруппированная выборка normal ~ нормальная выборка ordered ~ упорядоченная выборка probability ~ вероятностная выборка proportionate ~ пропорциональная выборка purposive ~ преднамеренная выборка quality ~ выборочный уровень качества quasi-random ~ квазислучайная выборка quota ~ пропорциональная выборка quota ~ стат. пропорциональная выборка random ~ образец, взятый по схеме случайного отбора random ~ произвольная выборка random ~ случайная выборка random ~ случайный отбор reference ~ контрольный образец replicate ~ повторная выборка representative ~ представительная выборка representative ~ репрезентативная выборка sample брать пробы ~ выборка ~ выборочная партия( товара, изделий) ~ выборочная партия ~ stat. выборочная совокупность ~ замер ~ образец, образчик;
book of samples альбом образцов ~ образец ~ образец товара ~ образчик ~ отбирать образцы, брать образчик или пробу ~ отбирать образцы ~ отбирать образцы или пробы ~ проба ~ пробовать, испытывать ~ производить выборку ~ шаблон, модель ~ шаблон ~ of data вчт. набор данных ~ of no value stat. непредставительная выборка ~ of no value stat. нерепрезентативная выборка single ~ однократная выборка singly censored ~ однократно цензурированная выборка small ~ малая выборка small ~ theory теория малых выборок stratified ~ районированная выборка stratified ~ расслоенная выборка stratified ~ типическая выборка systematic ~ систематическая выборка systematical ~ систематическая выборка test ~ образец для испытаний test ~ опытный образец test ~ пробный образец three-stage ~ трехступенчатая выборка trade ~ образец товара truncated ~ усеченная выборка two-stage ~ двухступенчатая выборка unbiased ~ беспристрастная выборка unbiased ~ несмещенная выборка unbiased ~ объективная выборка uncensored ~ нецензурированная выборка unordered ~ неупорядоченная выборка unrepresentative ~ непредставительная выборка unrepresentative ~ нерепрезентативная выборка unsolicited ~ образец, высланный без запроса

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > sample
13 object

= OBJ

1) объект

а) одно из базовых понятий объектно-ориентированного программирования, ООП (см. OOP), с помощью которого осуществляется программное представление сущностей реального мира. Объект - экземпляр класса; обладает свойствами наследования, инкапсуляции и полиморфизма. Объединяет в себе данные (property) и операции над ними (методы, method). Реализуется в компьютере как динамически размещаемая сложная структура данных, т. е. каждый объект имеет собственный набор полей, определённых его классом, а методы объекты используют совместно. Объект может рассматриваться как абстрактный тип данных (abstract data type). Каждый объект имеет собственное имя или идентификационный номер. Объекты создаются и уничтожаются с помощью специальных методов - конструкторов (constructor) и деструкторов (destructor). Структуры данных и реализация методов объекта невидима для других объектов в системе. Объекты взаимодействуют между собой, посылая друг другу сообщения (message). В ответ на сообщение объект выполняет один из методов, чтобы удовлетворить полученный запрос, при этом интерпретация сообщения лежит целиком на объекте-получателе. Таким образом различные объекты могут реагировать на одно и то же сообщение по разному. Действия, выполняемые объектом, называют его поведением (behaviour). Объекты - основная единица построения программной системы. Объекты с общими свойствами и методами объединены в классы. Чаще всего термин "объект" трактуется как синоним слова экземпляр, однако иногда может использоваться и для обозначения класса

см. тж. active object, aggregate object, ancestor object, class object, collection, composite object, conceptual object, container object, database object, dynamic object, encapsulation, information hiding, inheritance, instance, object conversion, object handler, object header, object identity, object interface, object library, object manager, object model, object orientation, object pool, object reference, object reuse, object technology, object type, OODB, ODL, OOL, passive object, polymorphism, reusable object, Simula

б) одна из составных частей компьютерного графического изображения

см. тж. 3D object

2) предмет

3) цель

см. тж. target

4) объектный

Англо-русский толковый словарь терминов и сокращений по ВТ, Интернету и программированию. > object
14 variable

= var

1) переменная

а) в процедурном программировании и ООП - именованная область памяти данных, которой программно можно присваивать разные значения (variable value), считывать их и модифицировать. Таким образом, содержимое ячеек этой памяти - это текущее значение переменной. Для использования переменной в программе её необходимо (явно или неявно) объявить: присвоить идентификатор (identifier) и задать тип.

Every variable must have a type that precedes its name. — Каждая переменная должна иметь тип, который (при объявлении переменной) предшествует её имени. Тип переменной определяет, какие возможные значения она может принимать и какие операции над ней можно выполнять. Соответствие типа переменной и её использования проверяется во время компиляции программы. В большинстве ЯВУ переменная перед тем, как её можно будет использовать в программе, должна быть инициализирована, т. е. ей необходимо присвоить начальное значение (initial value). До инициализации значение переменных неопределено (см. uninitialized variable) и их использование в программе диагностируется компилятором как ошибка. По области действия различают локальные (local variable) и глобальные (global variable) переменные

б) в языках функционального и логического программирования - переменная означает неизвестную величину

см. тж. anonymous variable, array variable, automatic variable, binary variable, byte variable, character variable, class variable, declare, definitional domain, dynamic variable, environment variable, expression, file variable, independent variable, induction variable, instance variable, integer variable, key variable, literal, loop variable, named variable, pointer variable, private variable, procedure variable, qualifier, reference variable, register variable, scalar variable, state variable, static variable, string variable, system variable, variable list, variable name, variable renaming

2) изменчивый, непостоянный, изменяющийся

Англо-русский толковый словарь терминов и сокращений по ВТ, Интернету и программированию. > variable
15 lead

вести глагол:
приводить (drive, lead, bring, put, reduce, adduce)

вести (lead, conduct, keep, guide, drive, wage)

руководить (lead, Guide, manage, direct, run, govern)

возглавлять (lead, head, chair, spearhead, forge, Crown)

проводить (spend, conduct, carry out, hold, lead, carry)

направлять (guide, head, direct, destine, refer, lead)

управлять (manage, control, run, drive, operate, lead)

приводить к (result in, lead, account for)

командовать (command, lead, order about, officer, be in charge of, king IT over)

опережать (advance, leave behind, outpace, outstrip, anticipate, lead)

заставлять (force, make, cause, get, compel, lead)

отводить (allot, take, avert, divert, withdraw, lead)

ходить (walk, go, attend, run, play, lead)

склонять (incline, decline, induce, sway, lead, bias)

сводить (reduce, bring together, lead, bring to, remove)

быть впереди (be in the van, lead, precede, lead the van)

быть первым (top, lead)

показывать путь (lead)

занимать первое место (rank, lead, gain the lead, have the lead)

направлять удар (lead)

целиться в летящую птицу (lead)

освинцовывать (lead)

свинцевать (lead)

идти первым (lead)

ходить первым (lead)

разделять шпонами (lead)

превосходить (exceed, transcend, surpass, trump, excel, lead)

покрывать свинцом (lead)
имя существительное:
свинец (lead, plumbum)

руководство (guide, manual, leadership, guidance, direction, lead)

шаг (step, move, pace, stride, increment, lead)

пример (example, instance, sample, illustration, pattern, lead)

ход (progress, stroke, running, travel, process, lead)

направление (direction, directing, line, trend, course, lead)

грифель (lead)

опережение (advance, lead, outrunning)

инициатива (initiative, lead, enterprise, overture, moxie)

жила (vein, conductor, lead, sinew, gannet, course)

поводок (lead, dog)

шпоны (lead, leads)

графит (graphite, carbon, plumbago, lead, black lead, black-chalk)

грузило (sinker, lead, plummet, bullet, plumb, sink-stone)

лот (lot, lead, plumb, plummet, sea gauge, Bob)

канал (channel, canal, duct, conduit, opening, lead)

отвес (plumb, bob, lead, plumb-line)

директива (directive, guideline, instruction, direction, leading, lead)

плоская крыша (flat roof, rooftop, terrace, lead)

вводная часть (preamble, prodrome, preface, lead)

золотоносный песок (gold dust, auriferous gravel, gravel, lead, Wash)

пломба (seal, filling, inlay, stamp, lead, stopper)

привязь (leash, tether, lead, lashing)

исполнитель главной роли (leading man, lead)

укосина (jib, boom, cantilever, lead, Gib, gibbet)

трубопровод (pipeline, conduit, pipe, piping, duct, lead)

стрела (boom, arrow, arm, dart, shaft, lead)

отклонение (deviation, deflection, rejection, departure, variation, lead)

указания (instructions, rubric, lead)

подводящий провод (lead)

ведущее место в состязании (lead)

отвердение (solidification, calcification, induration, consolidation, lead)

намек (hint, allusion, reference, suggestion, inkling, lead)

главная роль (lead, leader)

исполнительница главной роли (leading lady, lead)

разводье (lead)

первое место в состязании (lead)

предварение (advance, prediction, lead)

упреждение огня (lead)

приведение огня (lead)

ключ к решению чего-л. (lead)
имя прилагательное:
свинцовый (lead, leaden, plumbic, leady, plumbeous, saturnine)

Англо-русский синонимический словарь > lead
16 INTRODUCTION

   For a small country perched on the edge of western Europe but with an early history that began more than 2,000 years ago, there is a vast bibliography extant in many languages. Since general reference works with bibliography on Portugal are few, both principal and minor works are included. In the first edition, works in English, and a variety of Portuguese language works that are counted as significant if not always classic, were included. In the second and third editions, more works in Portuguese are added.

   It is appropriate that most of the works cited in some sections of the bibliograpy are in English, but this pattern should be put in historical perspective. Since the late 1950s, the larger proportion of foreign-language works on Portugal and the Portuguese have been in English. But this was not the case before World War II. As a whole, there were more studies in French, with a smaller number in German, Italian, and Spanish, than in English. Most of the materials published today on all aspects of this topic continue to be in Portuguese, but English-language works have come to outnumber the other non-Portuguese language studies. In addition to books useful to a variety of students, a selection of classic works of use to the visitor, tourist, and foreign resident of Portugal, as well as to those interested in Portuguese communities overseas, have been included.

   Readers will note that publishers' names are omitted from some Portuguese citations as well as from a number of French works. There are several reasons for this. First, in many of the older sources, publishers no longer exist and are difficult to trace. Second, the names of the publishers have been changed in some cases and are also difficult to trace. Third, in many older books and periodicals, printers' names but not publishers were cited, and identifying the publishers is virtually impossible.

   Some recommended classic titles for beginners are in historical studies: José Hermano Saraiva, Portugal: A Companion History (1997); A. H. de Oliveira Marques, History of Portugal (1976 ed.), general country studies in two different historical eras: Sarah Bradford, Portugal (1973) and Marion Kaplan, The Portuguese: The Land and Its People (2002 and later editions); political histories, Antônio de Figueiredo, Portugal: Fifty Years of Dictatorship (1975) and Douglas L. Wheeler, Republican Portugal: A Political History ( 1910-1926) (1978; 1998). On Portugal's Revolution of 25 April 1974 and contemporary history and politics: Kenneth Maxwell, The Making of Portuguese Democracy (1995); Phil Mailer, The Impossible Revolution (1977); Richard A. H. Robinson, Contemporary Portugal: A History (1979); Lawrence S. Graham and Douglas L. Wheeler (eds.), In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and Its Consequences (1983); Lawrence S. Graham and Harry M. Makler (eds.), Contemporary Portugal: The Revolution and its Antecedents (1979). On contemporary Portuguese society, see Antonio Costa Pinto (ed.), Contemporary Portugal: Politics, Society, Culture (2003).

   Enduring works on the history of Portugal's overseas empire include: C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 (1969 and later editions); and Bailey W. Diffie and George Winius, The Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580 (1977); on Portugal and the Age of Discoveries: Charles Ley (ed.), Portuguese Voyages 1498-1663 (2003). For a new portrait of the country's most celebrated figure of the Age of Discoveries, see Peter Russell, Prince Henry 'The Navigator': A Life (2000). A still useful geographical study about a popular tourist region is Dan Stanislawski's Portugal's Other Kingdom: The Algarve (1963). A fine introduction to a region of rural southern Portugal is José Cutileiro's A Portuguese Rural Society (1971).

   Early travel account classics are Almeida Garrett, Travels in My Homeland (1987) and William Beckford, Recollections of an Excursion to the Monasteries of Alcobaca and Batalha (1969 and later editions). On travel and living in Portugal, see Susan Lowndes Marques and Ann Bridge, The Selective Traveller in Portugal (1968 and later editions); David Wright and Patrick Swift, Lisbon: A Portrait and Guide (1968 and later editions); Sam Ballard and Jane Ballard, Pousadas of Portugal (1986); Richard Hewitt, A Cottage in Portugal (1996);

   Ian Robertson, Portugal: The Blue Guide (1988 and later editions); and Anne de Stoop, Living in Portugal (1995). Fine reads on some colorful, foreign travellers in Portugal are found in Rose Macauley, They Went to Portugal (1946 and later editions) and They Went to Portugal Too (1990). An attractive blend of historical musing and current Portugal is found in Paul Hyland's, Backing Out of the Big World: Voyage to Portugal (1996); Datus Proper's The Last Old Place: A Search through Portugal (1992); and Portugal's 1998 Nobel Prize winner in Literature, José Sarmago, writes in Journey through Portugal (2001).

   For aspects of Portuguese literature in translation, see Aubrey F. G. Bell, The Oxford Book of Portuguese Verse (1952 edition by B. Vidigal); José Maria Eça de Queirós, The Maias (2007 and earlier editions); and José Sara-mago's Baltasar and Blimunda (1985 and later editions), as well as many other novels by this, Portugal's most celebrated living novelist. See also Landeg White's recent translation of the national 16th century epic of Luis de Camóes, The Lusiads (1997). A classic portrait of the arts in Portugal during the country's imperial age is Robert C. Smith's The Art of Portugal, 1500-1800 (1968).

   For those who plan to conduct research in Portugal, the premier collection of printed books, periodicals, and manuscripts is housed in the country's national library, the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, in Lisbon. Other important collections are found in the libraries of the major universities in Coimbra, Lisbon, and Oporto, and in a number of foundations and societies. For the history of the former colonial empire, the best collection of printed materials remains in the library of Lisbon's historic Geography Society, the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, Lisbon; and for documents there is the state-run colonial archives, the Arquivo Historico Ultramarino, in Restelo, near Lisbon. Other government records are deposited in official archives, such as those for foreign relations in the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, housed in Necessidades Palace, Lisbon.

   For researchers in North America, the best collections of printed materials on Portugal are housed in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; New York Public Library, New York City; Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois; and in university libraries including those of Harvard, Yale, Johns Hopkins, Brown, Indiana, Illinois, University of California at Los Angeles, University of California - Berkeley, University of California - Santa Barbara, Stanford, Florida State, Duke, University of New Hampshire, Durham, University of Toronto, University of Ottawa, McGill, and University of British Columbia. Records dealing with Portuguese affairs are found in U.S. government archives, including, for instance, those in the National Archives and Record Service (NARS), housed in Washington, D.C.

   BIBLIOGRAPHIES

   ■ Academia Portuguesa de História. Guia Bibliográfica Histórica Portuguesa. Vol. I-?. Lisbon, 1954-.

   ■ Anselmo, Antônio Joaquim. Bibliografia das bibliografias portuguesas. Lisbon: Biblioteca Nacional, 1923.

   ■ Bell, Aubrey F. G. Portuguese Bibliography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1922.

   ■ Borchardt, Paul. La Bibliographie de l'Angola, 1500-1900. Brussels, 1912. Chilcote, Ronald H., ed. and comp. The Portuguese Revolution of 25 April 1974. Annotated bibliography on the antecedents and aftermath. Coimbra: Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril, Universidade de Coimbra, 1987. Cintra, Maria Adelaide Valle. Bibliografia de textos medievais portugueses. Lisbon: Centro de Estudos Filolôgicos, 1960.

   ■ Costa, Mário. Bibliografia Geral de Moçambique. Lisbon, 1945. Coutinho, Bernardo Xavier da Costa. Bibliographie franco-portugaise: Essai d'une bibliographie chronologique de livres français sur le Portugal. Oporto: Lopes da Silva, 1939.

   ■ Diffie, Bailey W. "A Bibliography of the Principal Published Guides to Portuguese Archives and Libraries," Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Luso-Brazilian Studies. Nashville, Tenn., 1953. Gallagher, Tom. Dictatorial Portugal, 1926-1974: A Bibliography. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1979.

   ■ Gibson, Mary Jane. Portuguese Africa: A Guide to Official Publications. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1967. Greenlee, William B. "A Descriptive Bibliography of the History of Portugal." Hispanic American Historical Review XX (August 1940): 491-516. Gulbenkian, Fundação Calouste. Boletim Internacional de Bibliografia Luso-Brasileira. Vol. 1-15. Lisbon, 1960-74.

   ■ Instituto Camoes. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade De Coimbra. Repertorio Bibliografico da Historiografia Portuguesa ( 1974-1994). Coimbra:

   ■ Instituto Camoes; Universidade de Coimbra, 1995. Junta De Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar. Bibliografia Da Junta De Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar Sobre Ciências Humanas E Sociais. Lisbon: Junta de Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar, 1975. Kettenring, Norman E., comp. A Bibliography of Theses and Dissertations on Portuguese Topics Completed in the United States and Canada, 1861-1983.

   ■ Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1984. Kunoff, Hugo. Portuguese Literature from Its Origins to 1990: A Bibliography Based on the Collections at Indiana University. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

   ■ Laidlar, John. Lisbon. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 199. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1997.. Portugal. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 71, rev. ed. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 2000.

   ■ Lomax, William. Revolution in Portugal: 1974-1976. A Bibliography. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1978.

   ■ McCarthy, Joseph M. Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands: A Comprehensive Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1977.

   ■ Moniz, Miguel. Azores. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 221. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1999.

   ■ Nunes, José Lúcio, and José Júlio Gonçalves. Bibliografia Histórico-Militar do Ultramar Portugües. Lisbon, 1956. Pélissier, René. Bibliographies sur l'Afrique Luso-Hispanophone 1800-1890.

   ■ Orgeval, France: 1980. Portuguese Studies. London. 1984-. Annual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Newsletter. No. 1-23 (1976-90). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Review. Vols. 1-9 (1991-2001). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal. Semi-Annual.. Vols. 10- (2002-). Durham, N.H.: Trent University; Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

   ■ Rocha, Natércia. Bibliografia geral da Literatura Portuguesa para Crianças. Lisbon: Edit. Comunicação, 1987.

   ■ Rogers, Francis Millet, and David T. Haberly. Brazil, Portugal and Other Portuguese-Speaking Lands: A List of Books Primarily in English. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968.

   ■ Santos, Manuel dos. Bibliografia geral ou descrição bibliográfica de livros tantos de autores portugueses como brasileiros e muitos outras nacionalidades, impressos desde o século XV até à actualidade, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1914-25.

   ■ Silva, J. Donald. A Bibliography on the Madeira Islands. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1987.

   ■ Teixeira, Carlos, and G. Lavigne. Os portugueses no Canadá: Uma bibliografia ( 1953-1996). Lisbon: Direção-Geral dos Assuntos Consulares e Comunidades Portuguesas, 1998.

   ■ University of Coimbra, Faculty of Letters. Bibliografia Anual de História de Portugal. Vol. 1. [sources published beginning in 1989- ] Coimbra: Grupo de História; Faculdade de Letras; Universidade de Coimbra, 1992-.

   ■ Unwin, P. T. H., comp. Portugal. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 71. Oxford, U.K.: ABC-Clio Press, 1987.

   ■ Viera, David J., et al., comp. The Portuguese in the United States ( Supplement to the 1976 Leo Pap Bibliography). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1990.

   ■ Welsh, Doris Varner, comp. A Catalogue of the William B. Greenlee Collection of Portuguese History and Literature and the Portuguese Materials in the Newberry Library. Chicago: Newberry Library, 1953.

   ■ Wiarda, Iêda Siqueira, ed. The Handbook of Portuguese Studies. Washington, D.C.: Xlibris, 2000.

   ■ Wilgus, A. Curtis. Latin America, Spain & Portugal: A Selected & Annotated Bibliographical Guide to Books Published 1954-1974. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977.

   ■ Winius, George. "Bibliographical Essay: A Treasury of Printed Source Materials Pertaining to the XV and XVI Centuries." In George Winius, ed., Portugal, the Pathfinder: Journeys from the Medieval toward the Modern World, 1300-ca. 1600, 373-401. Madison, Wis.: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1995.

   ■ PERIODICALS RELATING TO PORTUGAL

   ■ Africana. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Africa Report. New York. Monthly or bimonthly.

   ■ Africa Today. Denver, Colo. Quarterly.

   ■ Agenda Cultural. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Almanaque do Exército. Lisbon, 1912-40.

   ■ American Historical Review. Washington, D.C. Quarterly.

   ■ Anais da Académia Portuguesa da História. Lisbon.

   ■ Anais das Bibliotecas e Arquivos. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Análise do sector público administrativo e empresarial. Lisbon. Quarterly. Análise Social. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Anglo-Portuguese News. Monte Estoril and Lisbon. 1937-2003. Biweekly and weekly.

   ■ Antropológicas. Oporto. 1998-. Semiannual. Anuário Católico de Portugal. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Archipélago. Revista do Instituto Universitário dos Açores. Punta Delgado. Semiannual. Architectural Digest. New York. Monthly. Archivum. Paris. Quarterly. Arqueologia. Oporto. Annual.

   ■ Arqueólogo Portugües, O. Lisbon. 1958-. Semiannual Arquivo das Colónias. Lisbon. 1917-33. Arquivo de Beja. Beja. Annual. Arquivo Histórico Portuguez. Lisbon.

   ■ Arquivos da Memória. Lisbon. 1997-. Semiannual.

   ■ Arquivos do Centro Cultural Portugües [Fundação Gulbenkian, Paris]. Paris. Annual.

   ■ Avante! Lisbon. Portuguese Communist Party. Daily. Biblos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim da Academia Internacional da Cultura Portuguesa. Lisbon. Boletim da Agência Geral das Colónias. Lisbon.

   ■ Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa. Lisbon Quarterly; Bimonthly.

   ■ Boletim da Sociedade Geológica de Portugal. Oporto. Annual.

   ■ Boletim de Estudos Operários. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim do Arquivo Histórico Militar. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim do Instituto Histórico da Ilha Terceira. Angra do Heroismo, Terceira, Azores Islands. Semiannual. Boletim Geral do Ultramar. Lisbon. Bracara Augusta. Braga. Brigantia. Lisbon. 1990-. Semiannual.

   ■ British Bulletin of Publications on Latin America... Portugal and Spain. London. 1949-. Semiannual. British Historical Society of Portugal. Annual Report and Review. Lisbon. Brotéria. Lisbon. Quarterly. Bulletin des Etudes Portugaises. Paris. Quarterly.

   ■ Bulletin des Etudes Portugaises et de l'Institut Français au Portugal. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Cadernos de Arqueologia. Braga. Semiannual and annual. Monographs.

   ■ Cadernos do Noroeste. Braga, University of Minho. Semiannual.

   ■ Camões Center Quarterly. New York.

   ■ Capital, A. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Clio. Lisbon. 1996-. Annual.

   ■ Clio-Arqueologia. Lisbon. 1983-. Annual.

   ■ Colóquio/ Artes. Lisbon. Gulbenkian Foundation. Quarterly.

   ■ Colóquio/ Letras. Lisbon. Gulbenkian Foundation. Quarterly.

   ■ Conimbriga. Coimbra.

   ■ Cultura. London. Quarterly.

   ■ Democracia e Liberdade. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Dia, O. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Diário da Assembleia Nacional e Constituente. Lisbon. 1911.

   ■ Diário da Câmara de Deputados. Lisbon. 1911-26.

   ■ Diário de Lisboa. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Diário de Notícias. Lisbon. Daily newspaper of record.

   ■ Diário do Governo. Lisbon. 1910-74.

   ■ Diário do Senado. Lisbon. 1911-26.

   ■ Documentos. Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ E-Journal of Portuguese History. Providence, R.I. Quarterly.

   ■ Economia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Economia e Finanças. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Economia e Sociologia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Economist, The. London. Weekly magazine.

   ■ Estratégia Internacional. Lisbon.

   ■ Estudos Contemporâneos. Lisbon.

   ■ Estudos de economia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos históricos e económicos. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos Medievais. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos Orientais. Lisbon, 1990. Semiannual.

   ■ Ethnologia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Ethnologie Française. Paris. Quarterly.

   ■ Ethnos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ European History Quarterly. Lancaster, U.K., 1970-. Quarterly.

   ■ Expresso. Lisbon. 1973-. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Facts and Reports. Amsterdam. Collected press clippings.

   ■ Financial Times. London. Daily; special supplements on Portugal.

   ■ Finisterra. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Flama. Lisbon. Monthly magazine.

   ■ Garcia de Orta. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Gaya. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Geographica: Revista da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Hispania. USA. Quarterly.

   ■ Hispania Antiqua. Madrid. Semiannual.

   ■ Hispanic American Historical Review. Chapel Hill, N.C. Quarterly. História. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Iberian Studies. Nottingham, U.K. Quarterly or Semiannual.

   ■ Indicadores económicos. Lisbon. Bank of Portugal. Monthly. Ingenium. Revista da Ordem dos Engenheiros. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ International Journal of Iberian Studies. London and Glasgow, 1987-. Semiannual.

   ■ Illustração Portugueza. Lisbon. 1911-1930s. Magazine. Instituto, O. Coimbra. Annual.

   ■ Itinerário. Leiden (Netherlands). 1976-. Semiannual. Jornal, O. Lisbon. Weekly newspaper. Jornal de Letras, O. Lisbon. Weekly culture supplement. Jornal do Fundão. Fundão, Beira Alta. Weekly newspaper. Journal of European Economic History. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of Modern History. Chicago, Ill. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of Southern European Society & Politics. Athens, Greece. 1995-. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of the American Portuguese Culture Society. New York. 1966-81. Semiannual or annual. Ler História. Lisbon. Quarterly. Lisboa: Revista Municipal. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Lusíada: Revista trimestral de ciência e cultura. Lisbon. 1989-. Three times a year.

   ■ Lusitania Sacra. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Luso-Americano, O. Newark, N.J. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Luso-Brazilian Review. Madison, Wisc. 1964-. Semiannual.

   ■ Lusotopie. Paris. 1995-. Annual.

   ■ Nova economia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Numismática. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Oceanos. Lisbon. Bimonthly.

   ■ Ocidente. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Olisipo. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Ordem do Exército. Lisbon. 1926-74. Monthly.

   ■ Penélope. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Política Internacional. Lisbon. 1990-. Quarterly.

   ■ Portugal. Annuário Estatístico do Ultramar. Lisbon. 1950-74.

   ■ Portugal em Africa. Lisbon. 1894-1910. Bimonthly.

   ■ Portugal socialista. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Portugália. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese & Colonial Bulletin. London. 1961-74. Quarterly. Portuguese Studies. London. 1985-. Annual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Newsletter. Durham, N.H. 1976-90. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Review. Durham, N.H. 1991-2001; Trent, Ont. 2002-. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Times. New Bedford, Mass. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Povo Livre. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Primeiro do Janeiro. Oporto. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Quaderni Portoghesi. Rome. 1974-. Semiannual.

   ■ Race. A Journal of Race and Group Relations. London. Quarterly.

   ■ Recherches en Anthropologie au Portugal. Paris. 1995-. Annual.

   ■ República, A. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Biblioteca Nacional. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de Lisboa. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Faculdade de Letras. Lisbon. Quarterly. Revista da Faculdade de Letras. Oporto. Semiannual. Revista da Universidade de Coimbra. Coimbra. Quarterly. Revista de Ciência Política. Lisbon. Semiannual. Revista de Ciências Agrárias. Lisbon. Semiannual. Revista de Economia. Lisbon. 1953-. Three times a year. Revista de Estudos Anglo-Portugueses. Lisbon. Annual. Revista de Estudos Históricos. Rio de Janeiro. Semiannual. Revista de Guimarães. Guimarães. Semiannual. Revista de História. São Paulo, Brazil. Semiannual. Revista de História Económica e Social. Oporto. Semiannual. Revista de Infanteria. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Revista Lusitana. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Militar. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Portuguesa de História. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ Revue Geographique des Pyrenees et du Sud-Ouest. Paris. Semiannual.

   ■ Sábado. Lisbon. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ Seara Nova. Lisbon. 1921-. Bimonthly.

   ■ Século, O. Lisbon. Daily Newspaper.

   ■ Selecções do Readers Digest. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Semanário económico. Lisbon. Weekly.

   ■ Setúbal arqueologica. Setúbal. Semiannual.

   ■ Sigila. Paris. 1998-. Semiannual.

   ■ Sintria. Sintra. Annual.

   ■ Sociedade e Território. Revista de estudos urbanos e regionais. Oporto. 1986-. Quarterly.

   ■ Studia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes. New York. Quarterly.

   ■ Studium Generale. Oporto. Quarterly.

   ■ Tempo, O. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Tempo e o Modo, O. Lisbon. 1968-74. Quarterly.

   ■ Trabalhos da Sociedade Portuguesa de Antropologia. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Trabalhos de Antropologia E Etnologia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Trabalhos de Arqueologia. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Translation. New York. Quarterly.

   ■ Ultramar. Lisbon. 1960-71. Quarterly.

   ■ Veja. São Paulo. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ Veleia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Vida Mundial. Lisbon. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ West European Politics. London. Quarterly.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > INTRODUCTION
17 THEY, THEM

(3rd person pl. and dual forms): As the pronominal ending for “they”, Tolkien hesitated between -ltë and -ntë. For instance, a verb like “they do” is attested both as cariltë and carintë (VT49:16, 17). In one text, the ending -ltë is marked as archaic or poetic (VT49:17), but in other paradigms no such qualification occurs (VT49:51). The alternative form -nte- occurs in UT:317, with a second pronominal marker (-s “it”, denoting the object) following: Tiruvantes "they will keep it". General considerations of euphony may favour -ltë rather than -ntë (e.g. *quenteltë rather than *quententë for “they spoke” – in the past tense, many verbs end in -ntë even before any pronominal endings are supplied, like quentë “spoke” in this example). The ending -ltë (unlike -ntë) would also conform with the general system that the plural pronominal endings include the plural marker l (VT48:11). – In Tolkien’s early material, the ending -ltë appears as -lto instead (e.g. tulielto “they have come”, LT1:270). – A simple plural verb (with ending -r) can have “they” as its implied subject, as in the example quetir en “they still say” (PE17:167). – In the independent pronouns, distinct forms of may be used depending on whether “they, them” refers to living beings (persons, animals or even plants) or to non-living things or abstracts. The “personal” independent pronoun is te, which may have a long vowel when stressed (té, VT49:51). It is also attested in object position (laita te “bless them”, LotR:989 cf. Letters:308, VT43:20). It can receive case endings, e.g. dative ten (VT49:14; variant forms téna and tien, VT49:14, VT43:12, 21). As the “impersonal” they, them referring to non-living things, Tolkien in some sources used ta (VT43:20; 8, 9), but this apparently caused dissatisfaction because he also wanted ta to be the singular pronoun “that, it”. According to VT49:32, the form tai was introduced as the word for impersonal or inanimate “they, them” (in some places changed to te, apparently suggesting that Tolkien considered using te for both personal and impersonal “they/them”, abandoning the distinction). Another source (VT49:51) lists sa as the pl. impersonal form, but all other published sources use this pronoun for singular impersonal “it”, not pl. “they”. – The object “them” can also be expressed by the ending -t following another pronominal suffix (laituvalmet, “we shall bless [or praise] them", LotR:989 cf Letters:308). Presumably this ending -t makes no distinction between personal and impersonal forms. – Quenya also possesses special dual forms of “they, them”, used where only two persons or things are referred to (none of these pronouns distinguish between personal and impersonal forms). In VT49:16, the old ending for dual “they” is given as -stë (marked as archaic or poetic), but this would clash with the corresponding 2nd person ending. According to VT49:51, this ending was changed (also within the imaginary world) from -stë to -ttë, which seems the better alternative (*carittë, “the two of them do”). The independent dual pronoun is given as tú (ibid.) However, it may also be permissible to use te for “they, them” even where only two persons are involved (te is seemingly used with reference to Frodo and Sam in one of the examples above, laita te “bless them”). – Genitive forms, see THEIR; reflexive pronoun, see THEMSELVES.

Quettaparma Quenyallo (English-Quenya) > THEY, THEM
18 Davenport, Thomas

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity

[br]

b. 9 July 1802 Williamstown, Vermont, USA

d. 6 July 1851 Salisbury, Vermont, USA

[br]

American craftsman and inventor who constructed the first rotating electrical machines in the United States.

[br]

When he was 14 years old Davenport was apprenticed to a blacksmith for seven years. At the close of his apprenticeship in 1823 he opened a blacksmith's shop in Brandon, Vermont. He began experimenting with electromagnets after observing one in use at the Penfield Iron Works at Crown Point, New York, in 1831. He saw the device as a possible source of power and by July 1834 had constructed his first electric motor. Having totally abandoned his regular business, Davenport built and exhibited a number of miniature machines; he utilized an electric motor to propel a model car around a circular track in 1836, and this became the first recorded instance of an electric railway. An application for a patent and a model were destroyed in a fire at the United States Patent Office in December 1836, but a second application was made and Davenport received a patent the following year for Improvements in Propelling Machinery by Magnetism and Electromagnetism. A British patent was also obtained. A workshop and laboratory were established in New York, but Davenport had little financial backing for his experiments. He built a total of over one hundred motors but was defeated by the inability to obtain an inexpensive source of power. Using an electric motor of his own design to operate a printing press in 1840, he undertook the publication of a journal, The Electromagnet and Mechanics' Intelligencer. This was the first American periodical on electricity, but it was discontinued after a few issues. In failing health he retired to Vermont where in the last year of his life he continued experiments in electromagnetism.

[br]

Bibliography

1837, US patent no. 132, "Improvements in Propelling Machinery by Magnetism and Electromagnetism".

6 June 1837 British patent no. 7,386.

Further Reading

F.L.Pope, 1891, "Inventors of the electric motor with special reference to the work of Thomas Davenport", Electrical Engineer, 11:1–5, 33–9, 65–71, 93–8, 125–30 (the most comprehensive account).

Annals of Electricity (1838) 2:257–64 (provides a description of Davenport's motor).

W.J.King, 1962, The Development of Electrical Technology in the 19th Century, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, Paper 28, pp. 263–4 (a short account).

GW

Biographical history of technology > Davenport, Thomas
19 Wren, Sir Christopher

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

[br]

b. 20 October 1632 East Knoyle, Wiltshire, England

d. 25 February 1723 London, England

[br]

English architect whose background in scientific research and achievement enhanced his handling of many near-intractable architectural problems.

[br]

Born into a High Church and Royalist family, the young Wren early showed outstanding intellectual ability and at Oxford in 1654 was described as "that miracle of a youth". Educated at Westminster School, he went up to Oxford, where he graduated at the age of 19 and obtained his master's degree two years later. From this time onwards his interests were in science, primarily astronomy but also physics, engineering and meteorology. While still at college he developed theories about and experimentally solved some fifty varied problems. At the age of 25 Wren was appointed to the Chair of Astronomy at Gresham College in London, but he soon returned to Oxford as Savilian Professor of Astronomy there. At the same time he became one of the founder members of the Society of Experimental Philosophy at Oxford, which was awarded its Royal Charter soon after the Restoration of 1660; Wren, together with such men as Isaac Newton, Robert Hooke, John Evelyn and Robert Boyle, then found himself a member of the Royal Society.

Wren's architectural career began with the classical chapel that he built, at the request of his uncle, the Bishop of Ely, for Pembroke College, Cambridge (1663). From this time onwards, until he died at the age of 91, he was fully occupied with a wide and taxing variety of architectural problems which he faced in the execution of all the great building schemes of the day. His scientific background and inventive mind stood him in good stead in solving such difficulties with an often unusual approach and concept. Nowhere was this more apparent than in his rebuilding of fifty-one churches in the City of London after the Great Fire, in the construction of the new St Paul's Cathedral and in the grand layout of the Royal Hospital at Greenwich.

The first instance of Wren's approach to constructional problems was in his building of the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford (1664–9). He based his design upon that of the Roman Theatre of Marcellus (13–11 BC), which he had studied from drawings in Serlio's book of architecture. Wren's reputation as an architect was greatly enhanced by his solution to the roofing problem here. The original theatre in Rome, like all Roman-theatres, was a circular building open to the sky; this would be unsuitable in the climate of Oxford and Wren wished to cover the English counterpart without using supporting columns, which would have obscured the view of the stage. He solved this difficulty mathematically, with the aid of his colleague Dr Wallis, the Professor of Geometry, by means of a timber-trussed roof supporting a painted ceiling which represented the open sky.

The City of London's churches were rebuilt over a period of nearly fifty years; the first to be completed and reopened was St Mary-at-Hill in 1676, and the last St Michael Cornhill in 1722, when Wren was 89. They had to be rebuilt upon the original medieval sites and they illustrate, perhaps more clearly than any other examples of Wren's work, the fertility of his imagination and his ability to solve the most intractable problems of site, limitation of space and variation in style and material. None of the churches is like any other. Of the varied sites, few are level or possess right-angled corners or parallel sides of equal length, and nearly all were hedged in by other, often larger, buildings. Nowhere is his versatility and inventiveness shown more clearly than in his designs for the steeples. There was no English precedent for a classical steeple, though he did draw upon the Dutch examples of the 1630s, because the London examples had been medieval, therefore Roman Catholic and Gothic, churches. Many of Wren's steeples are, therefore, Gothic steeples in classical dress, but many were of the greatest originality and delicate beauty: for example, St Mary-le-Bow in Cheapside; the "wedding cake" St Bride in Fleet Street; and the temple diminuendo concept of Christ Church in Newgate Street.

In St Paul's Cathedral Wren showed his ingenuity in adapting the incongruous Royal Warrant Design of 1675. Among his gradual and successful amendments were the intriguing upper lighting of his two-storey choir and the supporting of the lantern by a brick cone inserted between the inner and outer dome shells. The layout of the Royal Hospital at Greenwich illustrates Wren's qualities as an overall large-scale planner and designer. His terms of reference insisted upon the incorporation of the earlier existing Queen's House, erected by Inigo Jones, and of John Webb's King Charles II block. The Queen's House, in particular, created a difficult problem as its smaller size rendered it out of scale with the newer structures. Wren's solution was to make it the focal centre of a great vista between the main flanking larger buildings; this was a masterstroke.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Knighted 1673. President, Royal Society 1681–3. Member of Parliament 1685–7 and 1701–2. Surveyor, Greenwich Hospital 1696. Surveyor, Westminster Abbey 1699.

Surveyor-General 1669–1712.

Further Reading

R.Dutton, 1951, The Age of Wren, Batsford.

M.Briggs, 1953, Wren the Incomparable, Allen \& Unwin. M.Whinney, 1971, Wren, Thames \& Hudson.

K.Downes, 1971, Christopher Wren, Allen Lane.

G.Beard, 1982, The Work of Sir Christopher Wren, Bartholomew.

DY

Biographical history of technology > Wren, Sir Christopher
20 Creativity

   1) All Human Complex Problem Solving Is Creativity

   Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Models of Creative Association

   Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the inﬂuence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)

   3) Creative Innovation and Social Independence

   There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)

   4) Ego Strength and Emotional Stability among Creative Geniuses

   he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)

   5) Its Mundane Character

   he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)

   6) Mozart's Musical Ideas Came to Him in Polished Form

   From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)

   7) Scientific Theories and Works of Art Alike Originate in Fantasy

   Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)

   8) Self- Esteem and Creative Expression

   The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)

   9) Stages in Creative Problem- Solving

   In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)

    10) The Bisociative Pattern of the Creative Synthesis

   he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)

    11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder

   Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)

    12) The Inner Life of the Creative Process

   New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)

    13) The Problem of What Impels the Creative Person

   [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....

   Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)

    14) Theories of Creative Thinking

   A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....

   Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

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Instance Nationale De Protection Des Biens Publics Au Maroc Association — Association / Instance Nationale de protection des Biens Publics au Maroc Est la convention par laquelle plusieurs personnes ont mis en commun d une façon permanente leurs connaissances Et leur activité dans un but la protection des Biens Publics … Wikipédia en Français
Instance Nationale de protection des Biens Publics au Maroc — Association Association / Instance Nationale de protection des Biens Publics au Maroc Est la convention par laquelle plusieurs personnes ont mis en commun d une façon permanente leurs connaissances Et leur activité dans un but la protection des… … Wikipédia en Français
Instance Nationale de protection des Biens Publics au Maroc Association — Association / Instance Nationale de protection des Biens Publics au Maroc Est la convention par laquelle plusieurs personnes ont mis en commun d une façon permanente leurs connaissances Et leur activité dans un but la protection des Biens Publics … Wikipédia en Français
Instance nationale de protection des biens publics au maroc association — Association / Instance Nationale de protection des Biens Publics au Maroc Est la convention par laquelle plusieurs personnes ont mis en commun d une façon permanente leurs connaissances Et leur activité dans un but la protection des Biens Publics … Wikipédia en Français
instance — in·stance / in stəns/ n [French, from Late Latin instantia, from Latin, the fact of being present or impending, vehemence in speech, urgency, from instant instans insistent, pressing, from present participle of instare to be pressing, stand upon] … Law dictionary
Reference class forecasting — predicts the outcome of a planned action based on actual outcomes in a reference class of similar actions to that being forecast. The theories behind reference class forecasting were developed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. They helped… … Wikipedia
Reference (informatique) — Référence (informatique) En programmation, une référence est une valeur qui permet l accès en lecture et/ou écriture à une donnée située soit en mémoire principale soit ailleurs. Une référence n est pas la donnée elle même mais seulement une… … Wikipédia en Français
instance — Synonyms and related words: abetment, adduce, anatomize, article, as an example, aspect, atomize, call to mind, case, case history, case in point, circumstantiate, citation, cite, cite a particular, count, cross reference, datum, demonstrate,… … Moby Thesaurus
Instance (programmation) — Pour les articles homonymes, voir instance. En programmation orientée objet, on appelle instance d une classe, un objet avec un comportement et un état, tous deux définis par la classe. Dans ce contexte, instance est un anglicisme, qui signifie… … Wikipédia en Français
Reference Daily Intake — The Reference Daily Intake or Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) is the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97–98% of healthy individuals in every demographic in the United States (where it … Wikipedia
Référence (informatique) — En programmation, une référence est une valeur qui permet l accès en lecture et/ou écriture à une donnée située soit en mémoire principale soit ailleurs. Une référence n est pas la donnée elle même mais seulement une information de localisation.… … Wikipédia en Français

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